Introduction
Italy is a land of silent cottages in the heart of mountain foothills, vast meadows on the slopes of mountains, lakes gathered in the cups of hills, and green or golden fields that join the blue sea. This two-thousand-year-old land even moved Pliny the Elder to admiration, saying: “There is no land under the rising firmament as beautiful as this.” In the midst of this beauty, Etruscan civilization between 800 and 508 BC wrote one of the most brilliant and mysterious chapters in the history of Italy.
The Land of Italy and Historical Background
The Apennine Mountains run like a spine across the peninsula and protect the western shores from the northeast winds. The Alps stand guard in the north, and the Mediterranean Sea washes the coasts. This land was a worthy reward for a hardworking people.
The mountains were both deadly and magnificent; earthquakes and volcanoes sometimes buried centuries of achievement under cold ash, yet the lava mixed with organic matter and made the soil fertile for generations. Polybius marveled at the abundance and cheapness of food in ancient Italy.
Roots of Civilization Before the Etruscans
Human beings had lived in the plains of Italy since the Paleolithic period. In the Neolithic age, a long-headed race known as the Ligurians and Sicels made crude pottery, manufactured polished stone tools and weapons, tamed animals, hunted, fished, and buried their dead. Around 2000 BC, tribes from central Europe arrived and brought the custom of building villages on rocky piles submerged in water for protection against animals or humans. This practice later influenced Roman camps and medieval palaces.
In the Po Valley these people created the Terramare (“manure”) culture. Around 1000 BC they learned the use of iron from Germany and spread the Villanovian culture from Villanova near Bologna. Then, around 800 BC, a new wave of migrants arrived and laid the foundation of one of the most astonishing civilizations in human history.
The Etruscans: The Most Mysterious Civilization of Italy
The Etruscans ruled Rome for a hundred years or more and exerted a profound influence on Roman life and customs, yet Roman literature is almost silent about them. Italian civilization as a literate culture begins with them. Eight thousand inscriptions and numerous works of art have survived, but their language has not yet been fully deciphered.
Most Greek and Roman historians believed the Etruscans came from Asia Minor, probably Lydia. Elements of their religion, clothing, and art support this theory.
Cities, Government, and Economy
The Etruscans founded, conquered, or expanded many cities. Twelve major cities formed a loose federation in which Tarquinii, Arretium, Perusia, and Veii held the leading position. Government began as monarchy and later became oligarchy based on a fully feudal society.
Etruscan engineers built advanced aqueducts and drainage systems. From the seventh century BC they mined copper on the western coast and iron on Elba, smelted iron at Populonia, and traded throughout the Tyrrhenian Sea (the Etruscan Sea). Around 500 BC they minted their own coins.
Daily Life and the Status of Women
The Etruscans were a short, stocky people with faces resembling those of the people of Anatolia. Their women were renowned for beauty and enjoyed a high position in society. Kinship was traced through the mother. Both men and women wore their hair long and loved jewelry.
Life was filled with manly sports, hunting, chariot races, wrestling, boxing, and festivals of feasting and dancing. Women sometimes turned to prostitution to obtain a dowry, yet they held power in many spheres of life.
Etruscan Religion and Beliefs
The greatest god was Tinia, lord of thunder and lightning. Twelve great gods carried out his commands. Mantus and Mania were the king and queen of the underworld. Divination from the liver of a sheep or the flight of birds was of great importance.
Belief in hell was strong; the soul of the dead went to the underworld court for judgment. Human sacrifice was sometimes performed to please the gods. The dead were usually buried or cremated in tombs filled with objects for the afterlife.
Etruscan Art
Etruscan art is the only well-known part of their civilization. In architecture they popularized the arch and vault for secular buildings. The black pottery of the sixth century BC reveals a distinctly Italian vitality.
Bronze work reached its peak. Famous surviving pieces include the statue of the Orator and the Chimera. The wall paintings in the tombs depict scenes of joy, battle, and banquets and exerted a deep influence on Roman painting. The famous statue of Apollo of Veii is a masterpiece of Etruscan art.
Etruscan Domination of Rome
Around 616 BC the Etruscans gained control of Rome. Etruscan kings such as Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus transformed the city. Engineering, religion, art, and military organization came under their influence.
In 508 BC the last Etruscan king (Tarquinius the Proud) was deposed by the Senate, and the Roman Republic began.
Conclusion
Etruscan civilization formed a bridge between the native past of Italy and the glory of ancient Rome. Its influence on government, engineering, religion, and art was so profound that Rome cannot be understood without studying the Etruscans. This mysterious civilization still holds many secrets for researchers.