Introduction
The second phase of the Greco-Persian Wars marks one of the most decisive turning points in ancient history. As Herodotus notes, by the time of Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes, more than twenty generations had passed since the early migrations of the Greeks. During this period, Greek maritime power expanded dramatically—from the western shores of Spain to the distant ports of the Black Sea—bringing them into direct competition with the land and sea routes of Persia, Phoenicia, and India.
This rivalry eventually ignited a series of conflicts that reshaped the ancient world.
I – The Battle of Marathon (490 BCE)
By 512 BCE, Darius I had crossed the Bosporus, subdued Scythia, and extended Persian rule over Thrace, Macedonia, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Cyprus, and beyond. It was the largest empire the world had yet seen.
Around 500 BCE, the Ionian Revolt erupted. Greek cities of Asia Minor, long under Persian rule, declared independence. The Athenians supported the rebels and helped burn Sardis, provoking Darius to launch a punitive expedition against Greece.
In 490 BCE, Persian forces landed at Marathon. The Athenians, joined by a small force from Plataea, confronted a much larger Persian army. Against all expectations, the Greeks won a decisive victory.
Herodotus: “The Athenians, though few in number, charged the Persians and were the first of all Greeks to look upon the Medes without fear.”
Modern Estimates
- Persian forces: ~20,000–25,000
- Greek forces: ~10,000–11,000
- Greek casualties: 192 Athenians + 11 Plataeans
- Persian casualties: ~6,400 (Herodotus)
The legendary run of Pheidippides from Marathon to Athens to announce victory became the origin of the modern marathon race.
II – Aristides and Themistocles
Two of the most influential figures of this era were Aristides and Themistocles. Their rivalry and cooperation shaped the Greek response to Persia.
Themistocles
A brilliant strategist, Themistocles persuaded the Athenians to build a fleet of seventy warships using revenue from the silver mines of Laurion. This decision would later prove decisive at Salamis.
Aristides
Known as “the Just,” Aristides was admired for his integrity. Yet in 482 BCE, he was ostracized—ironically because people were “tired of hearing him called just.” Despite this, he later returned and played a crucial role in organizing the Greek forces at Salamis.
Athenian citizen (according to legend): “I vote to banish Aristides because I am weary of hearing him called ‘the Just.’”
Without the Athenian navy—built under Themistocles—resistance to Xerxes would have been impossible.
III – Xerxes and the Great Invasion (480 BCE)
In 485 BCE, Xerxes I ascended the Persian throne. Contrary to later stereotypes, both Darius and Xerxes were capable and cultured rulers. The conflict between Persia and Greece was not a clash of “civilization vs. barbarism,” but a struggle between two powerful and sophisticated cultures.
Before invading Greece, Xerxes demanded “earth and water” as tokens of submission. Some Greek cities complied, but Athens and Sparta executed the Persian envoys—an act that made war inevitable.
The Crossing of the Hellespont
In the spring of 480 BCE, Xerxes assembled one of the largest armies of antiquity. Ancient sources—especially Herodotus—give enormous numbers, though modern historians treat them cautiously.
- Herodotus: 1,207 ships
- Herodotus: 600,000+ soldiers (likely exaggerated)
Engineers from Egypt and Phoenicia constructed two massive pontoon bridges across the Hellespont. Xerxes’ multinational army included Persians, Medes, Bactrians, Indians, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Armenians, Scythians, Libyans, Arabs, and many others.
IV – Key Battles of the Second Persian War
1. Marathon (490 BCE)
A decisive Greek victory that halted Darius’ first invasion.
2. Salamis (480 BCE)
Themistocles lured the Persian fleet into the narrow straits of Salamis, where the larger Persian ships could not maneuver. The Greek fleet—about 300–400 ships—defeated the Persian armada.
- Persian ships: ~1,200 (Herodotus)
- Greek ships: ~300–400
The defeat forced Xerxes to retreat, leaving a portion of his army behind.
3. Plataea (479 BCE)
The final major land battle. Under the command of Pausanias, the Greeks defeated the Persian general Mardonius. This victory ended the Persian threat to mainland Greece.
- Persian forces: ~70,000–120,000 (modern estimates)
- Greek forces: ~80,000–100,000
Introduction
The first phase of the Greco-Persian Wars began in the mid-sixth century BCE, when the rapidly expanding Achaemenid Empire came into direct contact with the Greek world. What started as political and economic interaction soon turned into rivalry, tension, and ultimately open conflict.
I – Expansion of the Achaemenid Empire and First Contact with the Greeks
In 546 BCE, Cyrus the Great defeated the kingdom of Lydia and incorporated the Greek cities of Asia Minor—such as Miletus, Ephesus, Phocaea, and Smyrna—into the Persian Empire.
This marked the first direct encounter between Persia and the Greek world. The Greek cities, accustomed to autonomy, now had to pay tribute and accept Persian-appointed governors.
Consequences of the Conquest of Lydia
- Persia gained full control of the western Anatolian coast.
- Greek maritime trade began to compete with Persian and Phoenician routes.
- The Greeks realized they were facing a far greater power than any they had known.
II – Darius I and the Consolidation of Power in the West
In 522 BCE, Darius I ascended the throne and pursued an active western policy. In 512 BCE, he crossed the Bosporus, campaigned against the Scythians, and brought Thrace and Macedonia under Persian control.
Persia now bordered the Greek mainland directly, intensifying the rivalry between the two civilizations.
Why Did Darius Turn His Attention to Greece?
- Rapid expansion of Greek maritime trade in the Mediterranean and Black Sea
- Competition with Phoenicia, Persia’s key naval ally
- Strategic importance of the Aegean coast
- Future provocations by Athens
III – The Ionian Revolt (499–494 BCE)
The most significant event of the first phase was the Ionian Revolt. The Greek cities of Asia Minor, dissatisfied with Persian rule, rose in rebellion.
Causes of the Revolt
- Heavy taxation
- Political restrictions
- Economic rivalry with Phoenicia
- Traditional Greek desire for autonomy
The Role of Athens
The city of Miletus appealed to Athens for help. Athens sent twenty ships, and together with the rebels, they burned Sardis, the Persian satrapal capital.
Herodotus: “The Athenians lit the flame of war — a fire not easily extinguished.”
Darius was enraged and vowed to punish Athens.
Suppression of the Revolt
In 494 BCE, the Persian fleet defeated the rebels at the Battle of Lade. Miletus was besieged, captured, and destroyed; its men were killed, and its women and children enslaved.
The revolt ended in disaster for the Greeks and convinced Darius that Greece must be subdued.
IV – Consequences of the First Phase
1. Darius’ Personal Hostility Toward Athens
After the burning of Sardis, Darius considered Athens his primary enemy and prepared for retribution.
2. Planning the Invasion of Greece
According to tradition, Darius ordered a servant to remind him three times a day: “Master, remember the Athenians.”
3. Formation of Greek Alliances
The Greeks realized that only unity could protect them from Persia’s vast power.
4. Prelude to the Battle of Marathon
In 490 BCE, Persia launched its first expedition against Greece, leading to the Battle of Marathon—the beginning of the second phase of the wars.
Conclusion
The first phase of the Greco-Persian Wars was a period of rising tension and expanding imperial power. The conquest of Lydia, the Ionian Revolt, and the growing commercial and political rivalry between Persia and Greece set the stage for the great battles to come. This phase was the essential prelude to Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea—conflicts that would shape the destiny of the ancient world.
Conclusion
The second phase of the Greco-Persian Wars reshaped the ancient world. The victories at Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea preserved Greek independence and allowed the cultural flowering of the Classical Age. For Persia, the wars were setbacks but not catastrophic; the Achaemenid Empire remained powerful for another century and a half.
Yet for the Greeks, these battles became symbols of freedom, unity, and the triumph of strategy over overwhelming force.