The Renaissance Takes Hold in Rome: Popes, Art, and Political Power (1447–1492)

Introduction: The Capital of the World and the Challenges of Rebuilding

When Nicholas V ascended the oldest throne in the world, Rome was less than one-tenth the size of the ancient city enclosed by the Aurelian Walls (270–275) and smaller in both area and population (about eighty thousand) than Venice, Florence, or Milan. Since the destruction of the major aqueducts during the barbarian invasions, the Seven Hills of Rome had lacked a reliable water supply. Most people lived in unhealthy lowlands subject to the flooding of the Tiber and malaria from the surrounding marshes. The Capitoline Hill had become Monte Caprino, named after the goats that grazed on its slopes. The Palatine Hill was almost a deserted rural spot, and its ancient palaces were now quarries of dusty stone.

The Borgo Vaticano was a small suburb on the far side of the Tiber, irregularly clustered around the tomb of St. Peter. Some churches, such as Santa Maria Maggiore or Santa Cecilia, were beautiful inside but plain outside. No church in Rome could rival the cathedrals of Florence or Milan, no monastery could compare with the Certosa di Pavia, and no town hall could match the Palazzo Vecchio, the Castello Sforzesco, the Doge’s Palace in Venice, or even the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena. The streets were mostly muddy lanes, swept only on rare occasions such as festivals or the visit of an important personage.

Economy and Social Structure of Rome

The city’s economy was partly supported by pasturage and wool production, but mainly by the revenues of the Church. Agriculture was limited and trade small in scale. Industry and commerce had almost disappeared because of the insecurity caused by bandit attacks. The middle class hardly existed; the only classes were the nobility, the clergy, and the common people. The nobility owned nearly all the land not held by the Church and exploited their peasants without Christian restraint. Any rebellion was crushed by the strong-armed ruffians they kept in their service.

The great families — above all the Colonna and Orsini — had seized cemeteries, baths, theaters, and other public buildings in or near Rome and turned them into small fortresses. Their rural palaces were equipped for war. The nobility were usually hostile to the pope or tried to choose and dominate him. Occasionally they created such disorder that the popes were forced to flee. Pius II once lamented that he wished his capital were any city but Rome.

Rome was usually governed by the clergy, since they controlled the varied revenues of the Church. The people depended on the inflow of gold from many countries, on the jobs the priests could create with those revenues, and on the alms the popes could distribute. Any reform that might interrupt this flow of income was unwelcome. Since the people could not revolt, they resorted instead to sharp and bitter satire, unparalleled elsewhere in Europe.

The Temporal Power of the Popes and Its Challenges

The popes, as both spiritual and political powers, faced the problem of reconciling humanism with Christianity. Humanism was semi-pagan, and the Church had once resolved to root out paganism in both belief and art. Nicholas V courageously and generously embraced humanism, assuming leadership of the new literature and art. For a century (1447–1534) he gave Italian thought a wide freedom (or, as Filelfo called it, an incredible freedom), supported it, and provided it with stimulus and opportunity, making Rome the center of the Renaissance.

The temporal government of the popes was directly concerned with the region anciently called Latium (modern Lazio). This included small states between Tuscany, Umbria, the Kingdom of Naples, and the Tyrrhenian Sea. Beyond this the popes also claimed Umbria, the Marches, and Romagna. These four regions together formed a broad belt across central Italy from sea to sea and included twenty-six cities that the popes, whenever they could, governed through their own legates or divided among local rulers. In addition, Sicily and the whole Kingdom of Naples were claimed by the popes as fiefs on the basis of an agreement between Innocent III and Frederick II, and the annual tribute from these states became a source of conflict between emperors and popes. Finally, Countess Matilda had bequeathed almost all of Tuscany — including Florence, Lucca, Pistoia, Pisa, Siena, and Arezzo — to the papacy in 1107. The popes claimed feudal rights over all these territories but rarely had the power to enforce their claims.

Nicholas V: Rebuilding Rome and Reviving Learning (1447–1455)

Tommaso Parentucelli was born in poverty in Sarzana. He managed to study for six years at the University of Bologna. After completing his studies he went to Florence and became tutor to the families of Rinaldo degli Albizzi and Palla Strozzi. The humanists called him “the Sarzanese.” He accompanied Bishop Albergati of Bologna to Florence to be at the side of Eugene IV during his long exile there.

Nicholas V had three goals: to be a good pope, to rebuild Rome, and to revive classical literature and art. He administered his high office with moderation and competence. He ended the schism and pardoned Felix V. The Council of Basel was dissolved. He used the revenues of the 1450 Jubilee for the rebuilding of Rome. He repaired the walls and gates, restored the aqueducts, paved the streets, and restored the Castel Sant’Angelo. He planned a new papal palace and library. He invited Fra Angelico to paint and restored many churches.

He summoned humanists to Rome and enriched the Vatican Library by purchasing and copying manuscripts. He supported Latin translations of Greek works. The discovery of alum mines at Tolfa provided new revenue. He suppressed the conspiracy of Stefano Porcari but treated his opponents with mercy. He died in 1455 at the age of fifty-eight, leaving a legacy of peace, order, and cultural splendor.

Calixtus III: Crusade and Nepotism (1455–1458)

Alfonso Borgia ascended the papal throne at the age of seventy-seven. He was an expert in canon law but had little interest in humanism. He elevated two nephews to the cardinalate and gave Rodrigo Borgia (the future Alexander VI) important offices. He devoted all his efforts to a crusade against the Turks, but Europe offered no cooperation. He spent his last days in a futile attempt to unite Europe.

Pius II: Diplomat and Humanist (1458–1464)

Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini came from a poor family in Corsignano near Siena. He studied law at the University of Siena, then went to Florence and studied under Filelfo. He served as secretary to Cardinal Capranica at the Council of Basel and initially defended the conciliar movement. Later he joined Emperor Frederick III and became a skilled diplomat. In 1449 he was ordained and reformed his morals.

He was elected pope in 1458. He tried to unite Europe for a crusade against the Turks but failed. At the Congress of Mantua (1459) he delivered a famous oration. He rebuilt parts of Rome, enriched the Vatican Library, and supported the arts. He died in Ancona in 1464 while awaiting the Venetian fleet for the crusade.

Paul II: Luxury and Conflict with Humanists (1464–1471)

Pietro Barbo became pope at the age of fifty-two. He was proud of his handsome appearance and built the Palazzo San Marco. He supported humanists but clashed with Platina and Pomponio Leto. He dissolved the Roman Academy on charges of heresy. He expanded the Vatican Library and supported the arts. He died in 1471.

Sixtus IV: Warrior and Patron of the Arts (1471–1484)

Francesco della Rovere became pope at the age of fifty-seven. He elevated his nephews to high positions and pursued a warlike policy. He fought with Florence, Naples, and Venice. He built the Sistine Chapel and brought great painters such as Botticelli, Perugino, and Ghirlandaio to Rome. He expanded the Vatican Library and reorganized the University of Rome. He died in 1484.

Innocent VIII: Relative Calm and Courtly Corruption (1484–1492)

Giovanni Battista Cibo became pope at the age of fifty-two. He first entrusted foreign policy to della Rovere and later to Lorenzo de’ Medici. He strengthened the alliance with Florence through the marriage of Lorenzo’s daughter to his son. He used the “Grand Turk” (Cem) to pressure Bayezid II. He expanded the Vatican Library but failed to control corruption at court. He died in 1492.

Conclusion: Rome’s Transformation from Ruin to Renaissance Capital

From Nicholas V to Innocent VIII, Rome was transformed from a small ruin into a magnificent capital and the center of the Renaissance. The popes rebuilt the city, supported classical literature and art, and strengthened their political power over the Papal States. Although marked by wars, corruption, and nepotism, this period laid the foundation for an unparalleled flowering of art, architecture, and learning in Rome and left an enduring legacy.