A Kingdom of Many Peoples
In the fourteenth century Hungary had a population of about 700,000, an unstable and shifting mixture of Magyars, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Khazars, Pechenegs, Cumans, Croats, Russians, Armenians, Vlachs and Serbs, together with the inhabitants of Pannonia, Slavonia and Bosnia. In short, a minority of Magyars ruled a majority of Slavs. In the new towns of that century a middle class of merchants and an industrial proletariat appeared, and because most of them were German, Flemish and Italian immigrants, fresh prejudices were added to the old racial puzzle.
Charles Robert and Louis the Great
When Andrew III died, the Árpád dynasty (907–1301) ended, and the war over the crown divided the nation further. Hungary found peace only when the nobles made the monarchy elective and set the crown of St. Stephen on the head of Charles Robert of Anjou (1308). Charles brought the ideas of feudalism and chivalry from France and commercial and industrial ideas from Italy. He developed the gold mines, encouraged large undertakings, stabilized the currency, cleansed the courts and gave the administration a sound footing. Under Charles and his son Louis, Hungary became a western state seeking help from the West against an East that was advancing quickly.
Voltaire says that Louis I "reigned forty years happily in Hungary" (1342–1382) and, less happily, "twelve years in Poland." His subjects called him "the Great," and he truly deserved the title. Yet he is little known in western Europe, because he ruled a people who could not spread his virtues and fame among other nations. Few know that in the fourteenth century a ruler named Louis the Great lived in the Carpathians.
In him culture and civic character mingled with chivalric feeling, soldierly zeal and high understanding. At times he went to war to avenge the murder of his brother in Naples, or to win back the Dalmatian ports from Venice, which had cut Hungary off from the sea. At other times he did so to bring Croatia, Bosnia and northern Bulgaria under Hungarian rule and check the expansion of the Serbs and Turks. By decree and by example he spread the ideals of chivalry among the nobility and raised the moral level of the people. Under him and his father the Gothic style flowered beautifully in Hungary, and Nicholas and his sons of Kolozsvár carved outstanding sculptures such as the statue of St. George, now in Prague. In 1367 Louis founded the university of Pécs, but this and many other medieval glories of Hungary were lost in the exhausting struggles with the Turks.
Sigismund's Long Reign
Sigismund I, Louis's son-in-law, had a long reign (1387–1437) that allowed far-sighted policy, but his undertakings exceeded his power. He led a great army against Bayezid to Nicopolis and came out of the disaster nearly alone. He recognized that the Turkish advance was Europe's greatest problem, spent great attention and money on strengthening the southern frontier, and founded the great fortress of Belgrade where the Danube meets the Sava. But once elected emperor he was forced to neglect Hungary during long absences in Germany, and when the crown of Bohemia was added to his empire his responsibilities grew without any growth in his ability.
The Rise of Hunyadi
Two years after his death the Turks invaded Hungary, and in the confusion the country's most famous national hero appeared. János Hunyadi took his name from Hunyad castle in Transylvania, which had been granted to his father for military service. He was trained for war from early youth. A victory over the Ottoman Turks at Semendria (Smederevo) set him apart from his peers, and the king, Ladislaus, appointed him commander in chief of the defense against the Turks. Repelling the Ottomans became the central aim of his life.
When the Turks entered Transylvania, he led against them newly trained troops inspired by his patriotism and generalship. In that battle Simon Kemény, the best-loved hero of Hungarian literature, gave his life to save his commander. Realizing that the Turks were hunting for Hunyadi, Simon asked to exchange clothes with him, and died under the concentrated blows of the enemy while Hunyadi led his army to victory (1442).
Sultan Murad II sent 80,000 fresh troops (the book's figure). By a feigned retreat Hunyadi drew them into a narrow pass where only part of them could fight at a time, and his stratagem again succeeded. Alarmed by disturbances in Asia, Murad offered peace and agreed to pay a considerable indemnity. King Ladislaus and his allies signed a truce with Murad's envoys at Szeged that bound both parties to keep the peace. Ladislaus swore on the Bible and the Turkish envoys on the Qur'an (1442, as the book dates it).
Varna: The Broken Oath
But Cardinal Giuliano Cesarini, the Pope's legate in Buda, thought the moment right to attack. Murad had taken his troops to Asia, and an Italian fleet could block his return at the Dardanelles. Cesarini, who was known for his ability and honesty, argued that a treaty with an infidel did not bind a Christian. Hunyadi favored peace, and the Serbian troops refused to break the truce. Ambassadors of the western powers sided with Cesarini and promised money and troops for the holy war. Ladislaus yielded and personally attacked the Turkish positions. The fresh forces the respectable ambassadors promised never arrived.
The Ottoman army, some 60,000 fighting men (the book's figure), deceived the Italian admiral and crossed into Europe. At Varna on the Black Sea coast Murad inflicted a crushing defeat on Ladislaus's army of 20,000 (1444). In this battle the Turkish standard-bearer carried the dishonored treaty on the point of a lance. Hunyadi advised retreat, but Ladislaus ordered an advance. Hunyadi asked that the king remain in the rear, but Ladislaus rushed to the front and was killed. Cesarini also died in the battle, but his lost honor was never regained.
The Second Kosovo and the Defense of Belgrade
Four years later Hunyadi set out to redeem the losses. He forced his way through Serbia, whose people regarded him as an enemy, and met the Turks in the region of Kosovo in a fierce battle that lasted three full days. The Hungarian army was routed and Hunyadi fled with them. For several days he hid in swamps, and when he was near death from hunger he came out of hiding. Serbian fighters recognized him, seized him and handed him over to the Turks. The Turks made him promise never to lead an army to this side of Serbia again, and let him go.
In 1456 the Turks besieged Belgrade. Sultan Mehmed II turned against the citadel the same cannon that had breached the walls of Constantinople, and Europe had never seen such a rain of shot. Hunyadi defended the city with courage and skill that will never fade from Hungarian poetry and literature. At last the besieged preferred the terror of battle to the deadly pain of hunger, sallied out from the fortress, fought their way toward the enemy's guns, and shattered the Ottoman force so thoroughly that for sixty years Hungary was safe from Muslim attack. A few days after this brave defense Hunyadi fell ill with fever and died. Hungary has always remembered him with pride as one of the greatest men in history.