The Papal Schism and Church Councils: Crisis in the Church (1378–1447)

Introduction: The Return to Rome and the Beginning of Crisis

Gregory XI finally restored Rome as the papal seat, but would the papacy remain there? The secret conclave to elect his successor consisted of sixteen cardinals, only four of whom were Italian. The municipal authorities of Rome sent a petition urging the cardinals to choose a Roman or at least an Italian pope. A crowd of angry Romans gathered outside the Vatican Palace and threatened to kill all the non-Italian cardinals if the elected pope was not Roman.

The terrified cardinals, with fifteen votes in favor and one against, hastily elected Bartolomeo Prignano, Archbishop of Bari, who took the name Urban VI (1378). They then fled for their lives. Rome, however, accepted the compromise.

Urban VI and the Outbreak of the Schism

Urban VI ruled both Rome and the Church with severe and sometimes tyrannical power. He appointed senators and city officials and brought the turbulent capital under obedience and order. He astonished the cardinals by announcing his intention to reform the Church, beginning at the top. In a public sermon in their presence, he boldly condemned the morals of the cardinals and high clergy, forbade them to accept benefices, and ordered that every matter brought before the Curia should be settled without any fee or gift of any kind.

When the cardinals protested, Urban called them “babblers.” When Cardinal Orsini objected, the pope called him a “fool.” When Cardinal Limoges raised his voice in protest, the pope rushed at him to strike him. Upon hearing of these acts, St. Catherine of Siena warned the fiery-tempered pope: “Be moderate in your actions… act with good will and a calm heart, for excess destroys more than it builds. For the sake of the crucified Jesus, curb a little the impulsive movements of your nature.” Urban ignored the warning and declared his intention to appoint enough Italian cardinals to give Italy a majority in the Sacred College.

The French cardinals met at Anagni and plotted rebellion. On 9 August 1378 they issued a declaration declaring Urban’s election invalid on the grounds that it had been made under pressure from the Roman mob. The Italian cardinals joined them, and on 20 September the College of Cardinals announced that the true pope was Robert of Geneva. Robert, taking the name Clement VII, established his court at Avignon, while Urban remained on his papal throne in Rome. The Great Papal Schism had begun.

Political Consequences of the Schism

The schism reflected rising national rivalries. France, Naples, Spain, and Scotland supported Clement VII, while England, Flanders, Germany, Poland, Bohemia, Hungary, and Portugal recognized Urban VI. The Church became a political instrument in the hands of rival powers.

Urban VI dealt brutally with his opponents. He arrested, tortured, and executed seven cardinals who plotted to imprison him as dangerously unfit (1385). His death in 1389 did not bring reconciliation. The fourteen surviving cardinals in his obedience elected Pietro Tomacelli as Boniface IX, and the schism continued. After Clement VII’s death, the Avignon cardinals chose Pedro de Luna as Benedict XIII.

Attempts to End the Schism: The Councils of Pisa and Constance

In 1409 the Council of Pisa assembled. It declared both popes deposed and elected Alexander V. Since neither of the previous popes resigned, the result was three popes instead of two.

In 1414 the Council of Constance, supported by Emperor Sigismund, convened. It was the largest and most important assembly in Christian history, attended by thousands of representatives from across Europe. The council first deposed John XXIII (Baldassare Cossa). Gregory XII then resigned with clever diplomacy, and Benedict XIII was eventually deposed. On 11 November 1417, Oddone Colonna was elected as Martin V, and the Great Schism ended after thirty-nine years.

The Council of Basel and the Challenge of Conciliar Power

The Council of Basel (1431), summoned by Martin V, continued after his death. It again tried to establish the principle of the superiority of general councils over the pope. Eugene IV ordered its dissolution, but the council resisted and even deposed him, electing Amadeus VIII of Savoy as Felix V.

In France, the Assembly of Bourges approved the Pragmatic Sanction (1438), which effectively made the French Church independent. Similar efforts for a national church were made in Germany. It seemed that the Roman Church was on the verge of collapse.

Union with the Eastern Church and Eugene’s Rescue

With the Ottoman threat to Constantinople, Emperor John VIII sought union with Rome. The Council of Ferrara-Florence (1438–1439) met with the emperor and the Greek patriarch. After lengthy debates, the Decree of Union was signed on 6 July 1439 in Florence.

Although the union was rejected in Constantinople and proved ineffective, it helped Eugene IV strengthen his position against the Council of Basel. Eventually Martin V and Eugene IV, with political skill and the support of Emperor Sigismund, ended the schism, but papal authority had been severely damaged.

Conclusion: Papal Victory and the Heavy Cost of Reform

The Papal Schism plunged the Church into a deep crisis and turned it into a political tool. The Councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basel tried to resolve the crisis and establish the supremacy of general councils over the papacy. Martin V and Eugene IV ended the schism with political dexterity, but the price was high: a severe loss of moral credibility, the strengthening of national tendencies in local churches, and the groundwork for even greater challenges in the sixteenth century.