Revisiting Epochs and Ideologies
Plato: Philosopher of Forms, Justice, and the Ideal State
Aristotle (384–322 BCE) was one of the most influential philosophers in history. A student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great, he founded the Lyceum and the Peripatetic school. His works span logic, ethics, politics, biology, metaphysics, and rhetoric. This article explores his life, key ideas, and lasting impact on philosophy and science.
Epicureanism, founded by Epicurus in the 4th century BCE, is one of the major Hellenistic philosophical schools. It teaches that pleasure—defined as the absence of bodily pain and mental distress—is the highest good. Contrary to popular misunderstanding, it is not a philosophy of indulgence, but rather of simplicity, rational living, and liberation from unnecessary desires, especially fear of death and divine punishment.
Founded by Zeno of Citium in the 3rd century BCE, Stoicism is a major Hellenistic school of philosophy focused on rational living, inner peace, and harmony with nature. Stoics teach control over emotions, detachment from external goods, and the pursuit of virtue as the highest good. This article introduces Stoic principles, notable figures, and practical insights for daily life.
Two influential Hellenistic schools—Cynicism and Skepticism—offered radically different approaches to philosophical life. The Cynics emphasized simplicity, freedom from social conventions, and virtue through detachment from desire. The Skeptics, in turn, sought inner tranquility by suspending judgment and rejecting claims to certainty. This article explores the principles, figures, and distinctions of both movements
Constantine the Great, the first Roman emperor to embrace Christianity, and Saint Augustine, one of the most influential theologians and philosophers in Christian history, each played a foundational role in shaping Western religious tradition. Through the Edict of Milan, Constantine transformed Christianity’s place in the Roman world; Augustine, through his writings, forged the intellectual and theological framework for centuries to come. This article explores their lives, ideas, and lasting impact.
The Sumerian civilization, located in southern Mesopotamia, is one of the earliest known civilizations in human history. With the invention of cuneiform writing, the development of organized cities, religious and legal systems, and remarkable achievements in architecture and literature, the Sumerians laid the foundation for human civilization. This article explores their social structure, cultural contributions, economy, religion, and long-term influence on later societies.
The Elamite civilization was one of the oldest in Western Asia, flourishing in southwestern Iran — particularly in the regions of Khuzestan, Ilam, and Lorestan. Centered in the city of Susa, Elam developed a unique political, religious, and cultural identity while interacting with Mesopotamian powers. This article explores Elam’s dynasties, architecture, language, religion, and its lasting influence on later Iranian civilizations.
The Babylonian civilization was one of the most influential ancient cultures of Mesopotamia, centered in the city of Babylon. Flourishing during various historical periods, especially under Hammurabi and Nebuchadnezzar II, Babylon became a hub of law, science, religion, and monumental architecture. This article explores Babylon’s political structure, cultural achievements, religious beliefs, and its enduring legacy.
