Reformation

A period in European history marked by efforts to reform the Christian Church

reformation

Articles

Skeptics of the Sixteenth Century: La Boetie's Discourse and the Young Ramus

The scarcity of open atheism, Luther on doubters, Bonaventure des Periers, the political skeptics who attacked the divine right of kings, Etienne de La Boetie and his friendship with Montaigne, and the early life of Peter Ramus.

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Peter Ramus: The Trial of Aristotle, a Reforming Teacher, and the Close of the Age of Science

Ramus's degree and his attack on Aristotelian logic, the royal trial of 1544, his reforms in teaching and grammar, his Protestant sympathies, the quarrels of his last years, and a summing up of the sixteenth century's scientific revolution and the Church's dilemma.

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Protestant Reformers in Italy: Renee of Ferrara, the Modena Academy and the Circle of Juan de Valdes

How Luther's ideas reached Italy, the Protestant duchess Renee of Ferrara, the dispersal of the Modena Academy, Peter Martyr Vermigli in Lucca, and the Spanish brothers Juan and Alfonso de Valdes with their Neapolitan circle.

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Bernardino Ochino and Why Italy Stayed Catholic

The rise and flight of the Capuchin preacher Bernardino Ochino, his exile across Europe and death in 1564, and the political, artistic and social reasons why Protestantism never took hold in Italy.

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Catholic Reformers in Italy: The Theatines, Giberti, Borromeo and the Council of Cardinals on Reform

The demand for reform from within, the Oratory of Divine Love and the Theatines, Giberti and the reform of Verona, Philip Neri and Charles Borromeo, Paul III's reform commission and its candid report, and the austerities of Paul IV.

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Reform of the Religious Orders: The Capuchins and the Early Life and Visions of St. Teresa of Avila

The reforming orders of the sixteenth century, the founding of the Capuchins and their service in the plague, and the youth, illness, recovery and mystical experiences of Teresa of Avila.

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Teresa of Avila and the Reform of the Discalced Carmelites

Teresa's mystical insights, the Inquisition's examination of her, the founding of the strict convent of San José, her conflicts with her order and the Church, her last illnesses, and her canonization.

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Ignatius of Loyola: From Soldier to Pilgrim

The youth of Ignatius of Loyola, his wound at Pamplona, his conversion during convalescence, his vigil at Montserrat, his austerities at Manresa, and his pilgrimage and studies in Spain.

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Ignatius of Loyola and the Spiritual Exercises: The Founding Circle of the Jesuits

Ignatius's first companions in Paris, the structure and ideas of the Spiritual Exercises, the vow of Montmartre in 1534, the road to Venice and Rome, and a portrait of the man who would found the Society of Jesus.

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The Founding of the Society of Jesus: Papal Approval, Constitution and Structure

How Ignatius and his companions in Rome won papal approval of the Society of Jesus in 1540, and how its constitution, novitiate, grades of membership and command structure were built.

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The Jesuits in the World: Xavier's Missions and the Jesuit Schools

The overseas missions of the Jesuits and the career of Francis Xavier in India, Japan and China, and the Jesuits' work in Europe, especially their schools, which helped turn back the Protestant advance.

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The Popes at an Impasse: Leo X, Adrian VI, Clement VII and Paul III

How the popes of the Reformation age responded to the Protestant challenge, from Leo X's hesitation to Clement VII's disasters and Paul III's failed attempts at conciliation, including Contarini at Regensburg.

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